Klara wurtz biography of martin luther

Nunes Eerdmans, This is a stunning fact—and a powerful way to introduce the significance and timeliness of this book. Marty Paraclete Press, The eminent scholar Martin Marty wrote this book to commemorate the th year anniversary of the Reformation. The book is quite brief—and for that reason alone may be worth picking up and giving it a quick read.

The rest of the book, though, explores the ways that many Catholics, Lutherans, and others have attempted to regain some of the unity that was lost due to the Reformation fissures. The result is a brief but powerful devotional reflection on the possibility of restoring Christian unity across theological and historical divides. Bainton is still the foremost biographer associated with Martin Luther and the Reformation.

His biography of Luther was first published in and has undergone numerous re-issues since then. The most recent, I believe, is the edition listed above. Kilcrease and Erwin W. Lutzer Baker Books, As always, there are many other books that could be added to the list. Add your favorite in the comment section. In OctoberPhilip I, Landgrave of Hesseconvoked an assembly of German and Swiss theologians at the Marburg Colloquyto establish doctrinal unity in the emerging Protestant states.

Zwingli, for example, denied Jesus' ability to be in more than one place at a time. Luther stressed the omnipresence of Jesus' human nature. Citing Jesus' words "The flesh profiteth nothing" John 6. This is Hesse, not Switzerland. Despite the disagreements on the Eucharist, the Marburg Colloquy paved the way for the signing in of the Augsburg Confessionand for the formation of the Schmalkaldic League the following year by leading Protestant nobles such as John of SaxonyPhilip of Hesse, and George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach.

The Swiss cities, however, did not sign these agreements. Some scholars have asserted that Luther taught that faith and reason were antithetical in the sense that questions of faith could not be illuminated by reason. He wrote, "All the articles of our Christian faith, which God has revealed to us in His Word, are in presence of reason sheerly impossible, absurd, and false.

Contemporary Lutheran scholarship, however, has found a different reality in Luther. Luther rather seeks to separate faith and reason in order to honor the separate spheres of knowledge that each applies to. He saw the Turks as a scourge sent by God to punish Christians, as agents of the biblical apocalypse that would destroy the Antichristwhom Luther believed to be the papacy and the Roman Church.

This is absolutely contrary to Christ's doctrine and name". InLuther read a Latin translation of the Qur'an. Early inJohannes Agricola —serving at the time as pastor in Luther's birthplace, Eisleben—preached a sermon in which he claimed that God's gospel, not God's klara wurtz biography of martin luther law the Ten Commandmentsrevealed God's wrath to Christians.

Based on this sermon and others by Agricola, Luther suspected that Agricola was behind certain anonymous antinomian theses circulating in Wittenberg. These theses asserted that the law is no longer to be taught to Christians but belonged only to city hall. In his theses and disputations against the antinomians, Luther reviews and reaffirms, on the one hand, what has been called the "second use of the law," that is, the law as the Holy Spirit's tool to work sorrow over sin in man's heart, thus preparing him for Christ's fulfillment of the law offered in the gospel.

Luther also points out that the Ten Commandments—when considered not as God's condemning judgment but as an expression of his eternal will, that is, of the natural law—positively teach how the Christian ought to live. The Ten Commandments, and the beginnings of the renewed life of Christians accorded to them by the sacrament of baptismare a present foreshadowing of the believers' future angel -like life in heaven in the midst of this life.

Philip solicited the approval of Luther, Melanchthon, and Bucer, citing as a precedent the polygamy of the patriarchs.

Klara wurtz biography of martin luther: Martin Luther, Doctor Martin luthers

The theologians were not prepared to make a general ruling, and they reluctantly advised the landgrave that if he was determined, he should marry secretly and keep quiet about the matter because divorce was worse than bigamy. Philip's sister Elisabeth quickly made the scandal public, and Philip threatened to expose Luther's advice. Luther told him to "tell a good, strong lie" and deny the marriage completely, which Philip did.

In the view of Luther's biographer Martin Brecht"giving confessional advice for Philip of Hesse was one of the worst mistakes Luther made, and, next to the landgrave himself, who was directly responsible for it, history chiefly holds Luther accountable". Luther wrote negatively about Jews throughout his career. Therefore, in any case, away with them!

Luther launched a polemic against vagrants in his preface to Liber Vagatorumsaying that the Jews had contributed Hebrew words as a main basis of the Rotwelsch cryptolect. He warned in the admonitory preface Christians not to give them alms as it was, in his opinion, to forsake the truly poor. Luther spoke out against the Jews in Saxony, Brandenburg, and Silesia.

Throughout the s, riots led to the expulsion of Jews from several German Lutheran states. Tovia Singeran Orthodox Jewish rabbi, remarking about Luther's attitude toward Jews, put it thus: "Among all the Church Fathers and Reformers, there was no mouth more vile, no tongue that uttered more vulgar curses against the Children of Israel than this founder of the Reformation.

Inhe began to suffer from kidney and bladder stonesarthritisand an ear infection which ruptured an ear drum. In Decemberhe began to feel the effects of angina. His poor physical health made him short-tempered and even harsher in his writings and comments. His wife Katharina was overheard saying, "Dear husband, you are too rude," and he responded, "They are teaching me to be rude.

His last sermon was delivered at Eisleben, his place of birth, on 15 Februarythree days before his death. And so often they do. Luther's final journey, to Mansfeld, was taken because of his concern for his siblings' families continuing in their father Hans Luther's copper mining trade. Their livelihood was threatened by Count Albrecht of Mansfeld bringing the industry under his own control.

Luther journeyed to Mansfeld twice in late to participate in the negotiations for a settlement, and a third visit was needed in early for their completion. The negotiations were successfully concluded on 17 February After 8 p. When he went to his bed, he prayed, "Into your hand I commit my spirit; you have redeemed me, O Lord, faithful God" Ps.

He thanked God for revealing his Son to him in whom he had believed. His companions, Justus Jonas and Michael Coelius, shouted loudly, "Reverend father, are you ready to die trusting in your Lord Jesus Christ and to confess the doctrine which you have taught in his name? An apoplectic stroke deprived him of his speech, and he died shortly afterwards at a.

He was buried in the Schlosskirche in Wittenberg, in front of the pulpit. A piece of paper was later found on which Luther had written his last statement. The statement was in Latin, apart from "We are beggars," which was in German. The statement reads:. Do not assail this divine Aeneid ; nay, rather prostrate revere the ground that it treads.

We are beggars: this is true. Luther was the most widely read author of his generation, and within Germany he acquired the status of a prophet. Heinrich Himmler albeit never a Lutheran, having been brought up Catholic wrote admiringly of his klara wurtz biographies of martin luther and sermons on the Jews in Schulz and R. On 17 Decemberseven Protestant regional church confederations issued a statement agreeing with the policy of forcing Jews to wear the yellow badge"since after his bitter experience Luther had already suggested preventive measures against the Jews and their expulsion from German territory.

Nevertheless, his misguided agitation had the evil result that Luther fatefully became one of the 'church fathers' of anti-Semitism and thus provided material for the modern hatred of the Jews, cloaking it with the authority of the Reformer. At the heart of scholarly debate about Luther's influence is whether it is anachronistic to view his work as a precursor of the racial antisemitism of the Nazis.

Some scholars see Luther's influence as limited, and the Nazis' use of his work as opportunistic. Johannes Wallmann argues that Luther's writings against the Jews were largely ignored in the 18th and 19th centuries, and that there was no continuity between Luther's thought and Nazi ideology. Hillerbrand agreed that to focus on Luther was to adopt an essentially ahistorical perspective of Nazi antisemitism that ignored other contributory factors in German history.

His position was entirely religious and in no respect racial. Probst, in his book Demonizing the Jews: Luther and the Protestant Church in Nazi Germanyshows that a large number of German Protestant clergy and theologians during the Nazi era used Luther's hostile publications towards the Jews and their Jewish religion to justify at least in part the antisemitic policies of the National Socialists.

Some scholars, such as Mark U. Edwards in his book Luther's Last Battles: Politics and Polemics —46suggest that since Luther's increasingly antisemitic views developed during the years his health deteriorated, it is possible they were at least partly the product of a state of mind. Edwards also comments that Luther often deliberately used "vulgarity and violence" for effect, both in his writings condemning the Jews and in diatribes against "Turks" Muslims and Catholics.

Since the s, Lutheran denominations have repudiated Martin Luther's statements against the Jews [ citation needed ] and have rejected the use of them to incite hatred against Lutherans. Luther made effective use of Johannes Gutenberg 's printing press to spread his views. He switched from Latin to German in his writing to appeal to a broader audience.

Between andLuther's works represented one fifth of all materials printed in Germany. In the s and s, printed images of Luther that emphasized his monumental size were crucial to the spread of Protestantism. In contrast to images of frail Catholic saints, Luther was presented as a stout man with a "double chin, strong mouth, piercing deep-set eyes, fleshy face, and squat neck.

His large body also let the viewer know that he did not shun earthly pleasures like drinking—behavior that was a stark contrast to the ascetic life of the medieval religious orders. Lutheranism, the Reformed traditionand Anglicanism. Branches of Protestantism that emerged afterwards vary in their remembrance and veneration of Luther, ranging from a complete lack of a single mention of him to a commemoration almost comparable to the way Lutherans commemorate and remember his persona.

There is no known condemnation of Luther by Protestants themselves. Various sites both inside and outside Germany supposedly visited by Martin Luther throughout his lifetime commemorate it with local memorials. Mansfeld is sometimes called Mansfeld-Lutherstadt, although the state government has not decided to put the Lutherstadt suffix in its official name.

Reformation Day commemorates the publication of the Ninety-five Theses in Two further states Lower Saxony and Bremen are pending a vote on introducing it. Slovenia celebrates it because of the profound contribution of the Reformation to its culture. Austria allows Protestant children not to go to school that day, and Protestant workers have a right to leave work in order to participate in a church service.

Switzerland celebrates the holiday on the first Sunday klara wurtz biography of martin luther 31 October. It is also celebrated elsewhere around the world. Luther is often depicted with a swan as his attributeand Lutheran churches often have a swan for a weather vane. This association with the swan arises out of a prophecy reportedly made by the earlier reformer Jan Hus and endorsed by Luther.

In the Bohemian language now CzechHus's name meant "grey goose". Inwhile imprisoned by the Council of Constance and anticipating his execution by burning for heresy, Hus prophesied, "Now they will roast a goose, but in a hundred years' time they'll hear a swan sing. They'd better listen to him. Contents move to sidebar hide. Article Talk.

Read View source View history. Tools Tools. Download as PDF Printable version. In other projects. Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikisource Wikidata item. German priest, theologian and author — Not to be confused with Martin Luther King Jr. For other uses, see Martin Luther disambiguation. The Reverend. Ninety-five Theses Priest Theologian Author Hymnwriter.

Katharina von Bora. Reformation Lutheranism. Prolegomena Soteriology. Ordination history. Diaconal ordination. Priestly ordination. Christianity Start of the Reformation Reformation Protestantism. Doctrine and theology. Bible Old Testament New Testament. Augsburg Confession. Apology of the Augsburg Confession. Smalcald Articles. Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope.

Formula of Concord. Theology of Martin Luther. Justification Law and Gospel.

Klara wurtz biography of martin luther: WURTZ, P. Brainard Atlas

Sola gratia Sola scriptura. Christology Sanctification. Two kingdoms catholicity. Two states of the Church. Priesthood of all believers. Divine Providence Marian theology. Sacramental Union. Sacraments and worship. Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference. Key figures. Later life, klara wurtz biography of martin luther, and the Reformation.

Lectures on Psalms and justification by faith. Main article: Sola fide. Start of the Reformation: — Further information: History of Protestantism and History of Lutheranism. Diet of Worms Main article: Diet of Worms. Wartburg Castle Return to Wittenberg and Peasants' War: — Organising the church: — Translation of the Old Testament: — Main article: Luther Bible.

Main article: List of hymns by Martin Luther. Ein feste Burg sung in German. The German text of "Ein feste Burg" "A Mighty Fortress" sung to the isometric, more widely known arrangement of its traditional melody. Problems playing this file? See media help. Autograph of " Vater unser im Himmelreich ", with the only notes extant in Luther's handwriting.

Sacramentarian controversy and the Marburg Colloquy. Epistemology of faith and reason. Further information: Protestantism and Islam. Bigamy of Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse: — Anti-Jewish polemics and antisemitism: — Main article: Martin Luther and antisemitism. Others objected to the excessive rents charged to live on the aristocrats' lands, and to the arbitrary penalties for offenses not mentioned in the law.

New taxes on wine, beer, milling, and the slaughtering of farm animals greatly angered the peasants, who were also expected to pay the church a tithe, even when crops had failed. Overtaxed and overworked, underpaid and underfed, the peasants began to revolt. In the early s peasants staged armed uprisings against monasteries and castles. In the Black ForestUpper Swabia, and Alsace, attacks were made on monastic landlords, demonstrating the widespread anger toward tithes.

Other uprisings, also centered on monastic orders, occurred in and On May 30, peasants in the Black Forest region rebelled against the overlord, claiming they would no longer provide feudal services or pay feudal dues. In June laborers stopped working in the southern region of the Black Forest. Here the peasants were angered by the recent limits placed on local governmentand when the local ruler would not negotiate, peasant groups began to march through the Black Forest and called for rebellion.

The movement soon began to gain support and increase in size. The military phase of the Peasants' War, from April onward, was largely one-sided. Violence was usually squelched by the Swabian League and German princes. During this phase the rebel bands were successful in stealing the wealth of various monasteries, as well as destroying a number of castles belonging to aristocratic nobles.

Some towns were forcibly occupied, but executions of nobles were extremely rare. The battles were usually slaughters in which commoners were killed. In Maysix thousand people were killed in Frankenhausen, Thuringia; eighteen thousand were killed in Alsace. Limited peasant uprisings continued into the seventeenth century, but the main rebellion essentially ended in Many factors contributed to the violence of the German Peasants' War.

As already noted, anger toward the church and aristocratic nobles was central to the rebels' discontent. Several written works voiced these concerns and were adopted by the movement. The most significant were the Twelve Articles and the Federal Ordinance. The Twelve Articles were written in Marchone month before the armed uprisings took place.

This work expressed an opposition to tithes, and the authors used scriptural references to support their argument. The opening part of the Twelve Articles made the same point Luther had made years earlier, that any disorder resulting from the preaching of the gospel that is, Lutheran gospel should be blamed on those who resist it, not on those who preach it.

According to this view, any violence or unrest that resulted from the Peasants' War was not the fault of the peasants. Instead, those who refused to hear their complaints were responsible. The peasants believed they were charged by God to rebel and fight for their rights. In addition to the Twelve Articles, there were other Reformation pamphlets that called for an end to the tithe and demanded that parishes have the right to choose and dismiss pastors.

They insisted that pastors preach the Scripture as written in the Bible and not as it is interpreted by church officials. The Federal Ordinance was a more complicated document because there were so many different versions. Some of these versions expressed different ideas about how the existing social and political structures should be changed.

In versions found in Upper Swabia and the Black Forest, the authors wanted self-governing groups, or confederations, of local communities "towns, villages, and rural regions" to be formed. Such a political and social organization was patterned on the Swiss Confederation of neighboring Switzerland see "Switzerland" in Chapter 4. Switzerland had grown in size and power by absorbing smaller neighboring confederations on its borders.

Some Germans even hoped to break away from Germany completely and become part of the Swiss Confederation. In this system, peasants who owned land would be able to participate in the local governmentessentially making them equal to the nobles and aristocrats who sat on the assemblies. It was unusual, but by no means unheard of, for peasants to participate in representative assemblies during this time.

The rebels were not united under a common political goal; their ideas varied from region to region, and therefore there was not a united movement to change the political structure of Europe as a whole. Concerns were more regional, and desires for reform were usually tied to that region. Religious concerns were also addressed in the Federal Ordinance.

An appeal was made to fourteen leading Reformation theologians, such as Luther, Melanchthon, and Zwingli, to decide if the rebels had scriptural support for their rebellion. Luther denounced them passionately, claiming they had not correctly interpreted his beliefs or the gospel itself. Luther called for authorities to end the rebellion by any means necessary.

Some peasants felt that Luther had betrayed them and returned to the Catholic Church. While Luther felt the peasants had legitimate concerns and complaints, he felt the solution was to be found in the Gospels, not through violence. He thought that if a leader was to become a better Christian, he would become a better ruler. Despite his public statements against the rebellion, most German princes both Lutheran and Roman Catholic connected the Lutheranism movement with the German Peasants' War.

Early opponents of Luther had claimed that his appeal to the princes and the nobility to rebel against clerical authority would cause anarchy total lack of order across Europe. These opponents had also said that Luther's ideas would challenge the very rule of the princes and nobles he asked to support him. With the uprisings ofmany German princes believed these predictions were coming true.

As a result, princes of all religious affiliations began to take greater control over the religious practices within their realms. As criticism of the movement increased, Lutheranism was required to become more organized to defend itself against the attacks of opponents. Little is known about his family background. He studied at the universities of Leipzig and Frankfort on the Oder Between and he was at Wittenberg, where he came into contact with Martin Luther.

In and he preached at Zwickau. In April his radical beliefs caused him to be removed from his position as preacher at Zwickau. Later in he traveled to Bohemia; he preached at Prague and in November wrote his Prager Manifest Prague protestthe first of his surviving documents.

Klara wurtz biography of martin luther: This bibliography includes important

Here he also introduced the first liturgy text used in worship services written in German the Catholic liturgy was written in Latin, the official language of the church, and could not be understood by common people. His Allstedt reform program was successful, and he soon enjoyed a wide following in the town and surrounding countryside, which led to conflict with local Catholic lords.

In late September city authorities expelled both reformers following their involvement in a rebellion. In March a new revolution in the city led to the formation of a new government. At the age of ten she had been placed in a convent by her father after he remarried. Young girls who were not wanted by their parents were frequently placed in convents to become "brides of Christ.

Along with twelve other nuns, she hid in an empty barrel used to transport smoked herring a kind of fish and escaped on the eve of Easter Three of the nuns who had escaped were accepted back by their families, but Katherine and the eight remaining nuns could not return home. They found refuge at Wittenberg, where Luther was teaching.

Their situation was typical of a mounting problem: former nuns who were not wealthy and did not live with their families could not find husbands to support them. After two years, Luther decided to marry Katherine himself. Luther regarded the decision as having two benefits: he could please his father by taking a wife and upset the pope by getting married while he was still a priest.

Luther quickly settled into married life. The couple had six children, and Luther proved to be a tender husband and father. He was one of the first reformers to publicly support marriage for priests, and he greatly admired his wife. Katherine had a talent for stretching her husband's meager income. She also started a boarding house and ran a successful farm.

She brewed an excellent beer, which Luther greatly enjoyed, and she was not afraid to voice her opinion to her husband. Although always respectful, Katherine was known to openly disagree with Luther. As his respect for his wife and daughters grew, Luther became more vocal in his recognition of women's talents. He was one of the first advocates of schooling for girls, helping qualified women find jobs as elementary teachers.

Although he supported the right to education, Luther still believed that women should take care of the home and children and should not be allowed to be ministers or accept public responsibilities. The unstable political situation in the Holy Roman Empire contributed to the success of the Reformation movement. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was continually threatened by the Ottoman Turks, so his military klara wurtz biographies of martin luther were busy fighting the war against the Turks in eastern Europe and were not available to keep order during the revolts in Germany.

Some historians argue that if Charles had not been so preoccupied with the Ottomans, he would have stopped the reform movement. Political and military events of were therefore important to the continued spread of the Reformation throughout Europe. Once again Charles V's brother, Archduke Ferdinand, presided in the emperor's absence. While they were meeting, reports of continued Ottoman aggression reached the council.

Imperial officials were forced to make a decision regarding the empire's official stance towards the Reformation movement. So many churches and towns had turned "evangelical" a term used to refer to the Reformation movement in Germany; those who practiced the new religion were called "evangelicals" that Ferdinand was forced to allow people to practice their chosen religion.

In other words, the council decided that people should follow their own conscience as long as they did not break the laws of God and the emperor. Although this was neither a condemnation nor an approval of the evangelicals, the council declared it would be the official policy until the general church council was able to meet and establish more specific rules and regulations.

Ferdinand and Charles both knew that taking a harsh stand against the evangelical movement could result in loss of support for their campaign against the Ottomans. The Turks were threatening Hungary, which was ruled by Ferdinand's brother-in-law, Louis IIand the council needed to act quickly. At the Diet of Speyer it was decided that twenty-four thousand troops would be sent to assist Louis against the Ottomans.

These efforts came too late, however, and the Hungarians were demolished by the Turkish forces see "Hungary" in Chapter 4. Louis was killed on August 29, along with nearly twenty thousand troops and five hundred nobles. The Turks were unable to continue their campaign, however, because most of their forces were made up of noblemen who had to return home and attend to their own estates.

While the Turks were distracting Charles in eastern Europe, the evangelical movement was winning thousands of converts in Germany. Luther continued writing pamphlets that publicized the Lutheran cause. He also composed hymns that were based on the Psalms. These hymns made evangelical worship services more inspiring and attracted additional followers.

It is still sung in many Protestant churches today. In the summer ofas the evangelical movement presented mounting threats against the Catholic Church, an important event strengthened the ties between the emperor and the pope. Soldiers in Charles V's army sacked Rome when they had not been paid for their services. Charles was embarrassed by the actions of his men and the overall lack of discipline within his army.

Nevertheless, he used the situation to promise protection to the pope, who had been opposed to Charles's efforts to bring Italy into the empire. In return, the pope had to give Charles control of Rome and the Papal States territories ruled by the pope in central and northern Italy. After the new alliance was formed between the papacy and the Holy Roman Empire, the second Speyer meeting was held in March Both Charles and Clement were determined to strike a blow against the evangelical movement and its leaders.

By the evangelical movement had been weakened by internal fighting. Philip of Hesse and Duke John of Saxony — were both avid supporters of the Reformation, and they had been using their political positions to bring pressure on the Holy Roman Empire. They announced that they would withdraw support for the empire's campaign against the Ottomans if the Catholic Church did not respect the religious rights of the evangelicals.

Byhowever, the threat of Ottoman aggression had reached an alarming level. Philip and John of Saxony lost support, and with the evangelical movement splitting into different groups, imperial officials decided to act. On April 30,they repealed the Diet of Speyer compromise of and called for a return to the Catholic faith in all German provinces.

Evangelical worship was no longer supported or allowed within the Holy Roman Empire. A number of evangelicals protested the new policy, but both Ferdinand and Charles V rejected any compromise. It is because of these objections, or protests, that those allied with the evangelical movement became known as "Protestants. Philip of Hesse and other supporters began to plan a Protestant military alliance.

Philip realized that the only way political unity among the Protestants could be achieved would be if there were theological unity as well. Philip invited the leading Protestant theologians of the Roman Empire and Switzerland to his town of Marburg present-day Maribor, Yugoslavia for a meeting to be held on October 1, Luther, Melanchthon, and Zwingli all accepted.

The meeting was the first time Luther had met Zwingli, who had started a successful reform movement in Switzerland and in parts of the Holy Roman Empire. After great debate, the two men were able to agree on many key issues. They still held differing views about the meaning of communion, however, and were unable to reach a compromise.

Klara wurtz biography of martin luther: Robert Bugg and his wife Jacquie

Luther was adamant about there being a real presence of Jesus in the wine and bread used in the ceremony. Zwingli felt the ceremony was symbolic and nothing more. They agreed to disagree, but neither man ever trusted the other again. By the time the Holy Roman Empire announced another Imperial Diet inthe Protestant movement had not become unified either politically or theologically.

In the fall ofthe Ottomans had launched a full-scale attack against Vienna, Austria. The city was well-fortified and withstood the attack. After failing to take Vienna, the Ottomans focused their attention on conquering the remainder of Hungary. Ferdinand, who had presided over the previous three Imperial Diets for his brother Charles V, had been named the new king of Hungary.

Charles announced that he would personally preside over the next meeting of the Imperial Diet, to be held in Augsburg, Germany. Outwardly, it seemed as though Charles was going to be more tolerant of the Protestants. He claimed he would be respectful of the Protestant theologians. While many Protestants still did not trust him, others hoped Charles would listen to their complaints, realize they were acting out of true faith, and leave them to practice their religion in peace.

Charles had no intention of doing so. Permitting the Protestants to reject the authority of the pope would be the same as allowing them to reject the authority of the emperor. Like his grandfather Maximilian, Charles saw himself as a representative of Christ, and he would not allow his holy authority to be challenged. Those who believed Charles had good intentions decided to take the invitation seriously.

The Protestants were ordered to write a "confession," or statement, of their beliefs. The man charged with writing the confession was Philip Melanchthon, Luther's old friend. He was a respected theologian and the first priest to perform a Protestant communion. In Melanchthon had published the loci communes, commonplaces a well-respected text for the teaching of basic Protestant theology.

He proved to be a good writer, and Luther respected his abilities. Luther was still an outlaw and was hiding in the safety of a Saxon castle, so he was unable to attend the Diet at Augsburg. He trusted Melanchthon to do a good job of representing Protestant beliefs. Melanchthon's confession was not nearly so radical as many had expected.

Charles V himself was surprised at the mild tone of the document. The situation became difficult, however, when followers of Zwingli and other theologians presented their own confessions, which were more unorthodox. Upset that the Protestants had been unable to come up with a single statement, Charles refused to address each of the confessions.

Instead, he appointed a team of theologians to examine the Lutheran confession written by Melanchthon. The committee was headed by Johann Eck, Luther's opponent in the Leipzig debates. After two weeks, Eck returned with a page commentary on Melanchthon's confession. Eck's statement was so mean-spirited and unfair that Charles ordered Eck to rewrite it.

Charles would not let the Lutherans see the manuscript until Eck had toned it down. The emperor had a reason for adopting this strategy: although the Ottoman threat was less severe by that time, he still needed Protestant support for his campaign against the Turks. On August 3,Eck presented Charles with a page report, called the Confutation, which supported the decision of the Diet of Speyer.

Charles insisted that the Protestants accept the Confutation. He ordered them to renounce their beliefs and return to the Roman Catholic Church. Failure to do so would result in the wrath of the empire. The Protestant theologians and diplomats claimed they needed time to read the Confutation and klara wurtz biography of martin luther an official response, but Charles refused to grant their request.

Officials of the Holy Roman Empire tried to divide the Protestants by sending some individuals expensive gifts to woo them back to the Catholic Church. These tactics did not work. Protestants such as John of Saxony left the Diet of Augsburg early out of frustration, while others stayed and participated. Although the council voted to supply Charles with forty thousand infantry foot soldiers and eight thousand cavalry soldiers mounted on horses in the war against the Ottomans, Protestants refused to abandon their religion.

The emperor had set a deadline of April 15,for them to comply with the orders in the Confutation. Many feared the emperor might use military force against them. The threat of violence only strengthened the belief among most Protestants that they were right and the emperor was wrong. The Diet of Augsburg had been an effort to settle religious tensions within the Holy Roman Empire, but the meeting only intensified an already difficult situation.

Frustrated and angry Protestants decided the time had come to form a military alliance. Philip of Hesse and others believed they could resist the emperor. They felt they were within their rights to do so, since they were rulers of their own areas. Those close to Luther were attempting to convince him that, whether he wanted it or not, conflict may be inevitable.

As a pacifist, Luther did not advocate the use of violence under any circumstances. His beliefs were not shared by most Protestants. In late they gathered in the town of Schmalkalden, Germany, and formed the Schmalkaldic League for protection against Catholic forces. Philip of Hesse and seven other princes agreed that if one city-state were attacked, the remaining would come to its aid.

Nuremberg, a large and important city, refused to join the Schmalkaldic League, as did neighboring Brandenberg-Ansbach. Despite these abstentions, many Protestants hoped the cities would eventually join the cause. At the Diet of Nuremberg in the summer ofthe league was so strong that Charles was forced to agree to a truce that continued the toleration of Lutheranism indefinitely.

In northern Germany more princes and towns became Lutheran, including part of Saxony, which had been staunchly Catholic. Philip brought dishonor on himself inhowever, when he married a second time without divorcing his first wife. Other Protestant princes condemned him for embarrassing the cause. Philip was now at the mercy of the emperor for having violated a fundamental civil and moral law.

Charles forced him to. Showing a talent for language, Melanchthon mastered Latin and Greek at the age of twelve. By the time he was fourteen, he received his bachelor's degree of arts from the University of Heidelberg. In he became the first professor of Greek at Wittenberg University, which was still a relatively new school. At the beginning of the school year he gave his inaugural address, in which he proposed reform of the university curriculum.

Melanchthon had been strongly influenced by humanism, and he wanted the new curriculum to be formed along humanist lines. Justin Taylor is executive vice president for book publishing and publisher for books at Crossway. You can follow him on Twitter. Browse Articles Featured Essay. An essay by. Read Now. Kidd and Taylor. Melissa Kruger.

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